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CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY

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This work is dedicated to the laborers, artisans, agricultural workers, and craftsmen, as well as the countless unnamed innovators and inventors, whose tireless efforts and sacrifices have shaped civilizations, even if their names are not recorded in history books.

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It is an event today,
The same will be news tomorrow.
And again, the same will be the history the day after tomorrow.

-Rabi Roy

Jawaharlal Nehru's significant book 'Glimpses of World History' has motivated me to create this comprehensive record of world events, spanning from ancient times to the present day, based on insights collected from the works of various authors. -The Blogger

Difference between Earth and World in the English language: The terms "earth" and "world" have
distinct meanings in the English language. "Earth" refers to the physical planet we inhabit, while "world" can denote a broader range of concepts, including other planets, human society, and even the universe. The distinction is important as it affects how the terms are used in various contexts, from geography to philosophy and literature. In this document, we have used the word ‘WORLD’ in a broader range of concepts.

Volume 1 🔰 Chapter 1

Let us start from universe.

Ø Universe: What does it mean?

universe, the whole cosmic system of matter and energy of which Earth, and therefore the human race, is a part. Humanity has traveled a long road since societies imagined Earth, the Sun, and the Moon as the main objects of creation, with the rest of the universe being formed almost as an afterthought. Today it is known that Earth is only a small ball of rock in a space of unimaginable vastness and that the birth of the solar system was probably only one event among many that occurred against the backdrop of an already mature universe. This humbling lesson has unveiled a remarkable fact, one that endows the minutest particle in the universe with a rich and noble heritage: events that occurred in the first few minutes of the creation of the universe 13.7 billion years ago turn out to have had a profound influence on the birth, life, and death of galaxies, stars, and planets. Indeed, a line can be drawn from the forging of the matter of the universe in a primal “big bang” to the gathering on Earth of atoms versatile enough to serve as the basis of life. The intrinsic harmony of such a worldview has great philosophical and aesthetic appeal, and it may explain why public interest in the universe has always endured. Read it in detail: Universe | Definition & Facts | Britannica

Q. What is the Big Bang Theory?

A. The Big Bang Theory is the leading scientific explanation for the origin of the universe, proposing that it began as an extremely hot and dense point approximately 13.8 billion years ago and has been expanding ever since.

The Big Bang Theory

The most prominent scientific theory about the origin of the Earth involves a spinning cloud of dust called a solar nebula. This nebula is a product of the Big Bang. Philosophers, religious scholars and scientists have lots of ideas about where the universe came from (those thoughts may be discussed separately later on), but the most widely held scientific theory is the Big Bang Theory. According to this theory, the universe originated in an enormous explosion.

Before the Big Bang, all of the matter and energy now in the universe was contained in a singularity. A singularity is a point with an extremely high temperature and infinite density. It's also what's found at the center of a black hole. This singularity floated in a complete vacuum until it exploded, flinging gas and energy in all directions. Imagine a bomb going off inside an egg -- matter moved in all directions at high speeds.

As the gas from the explosion cooled, various physical forces caused particles to stick together. As they continued to cool, they slowed down and became more organized, eventually growing into stars. This process took about a billion years.

About five billion years ago, some of this gas and matter became our sun. At first, it was a hot, spinning cloud of gas that also included heavier elements. As the cloud spun, it collected into a disc called a solar nebula. Our planet and others probably formed inside this disc. The center of the cloud continued to condense, eventually igniting and becoming a sun.

There's no concrete evidence for exactly how the Earth formed within this nebula. Scientists have two main theories. Both involve accretion, or the sticking together of molecules and particles. They have the same basic idea -- about 4.6 billion years ago, the Earth formed as particles collected within a giant disc of gas orbiting what would become our sun. Once the sun ignited, it blew all of the extra particles away, leaving the solar system as we know it. Our moon formed in the solar nebula as well -- read "Where Did the Moon Come From?" to learn more.

At first, the Earth was very hot and volcanic. A solid crust formed as the planet cooled, and impacts from asteroids and other debris caused lots of craters. As the planet continued to cool, water filled the basins that had formed in the surface, creating oceans.

Through earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other factors, the Earth's surface eventually reached the shape that we know today. Its mass provides the gravity that holds everything together and its surface provides a place for us to live. But the whole process would not have started without the sun.

Read it: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang

Prehistory[1]:

Prehistory is the period of human history that occurred before the advent of written records. It spans from the first known use of stone tools by hominines, approximately 3.3 million years ago, to around 3000 BC, when writing systems were developed. This era includes significant events such as the Neolithic Revolution[2] and the emergence of various human species, including Neanderthals. The term "prehistory" itself is derived from Greek, meaning "before history".

👉 c. 6,000,000,000: The estimated age of the Solar System (variously estimated as 4,700,000,000 to 6,500,000,000)[3]

Details of the Planets' names in our Solar System:

1. Mercury

1. Planet Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun in our Solar system. Its size is also the smallest among all other planets.

We can see this planet from Earth with binoculars in the morning and evening, as the intensity of the sun is low at these times.
Life is impossible on Mercury because of the absence of air.
This planet’s maximum and minimum temperatures are 430°C (midday) and -180°C (midnight), respectively.
The distance from Mercury to the Sun is 57.91 million Km, and it takes only 88 days to complete one revolution around the Sun.
There are no satellites on Planet Mercury.
Elements like Sulphur and Chlorine are found in large quantities on this planet.
The abundance of iron is found on this planet because of its rocky surface, and due to this, its color is also dark brown.

2. Venus

Planet Venus is the second closest planet to the Sun and the closest planet to Earth among all the planets in the Solar System.
It is also called the Sister of Planet Earth because of its similarities like atmospheric presence, features, weight, size, etc.
This planet is called the morning and evening stars due to its brightness of this planet. It is also the second brightest object in the night after the Moon.
Venus is considered to be the hottest planet in the Solar System. People consider Mercury to be the hottest planet because it is near the Sun, but this is not true. The night and day temperatures on this planet are almost the same, which is 475 °C.
One day on Planet Venus is about 243 Earth days and takes only 225 days to make one complete orbit around the Sun.
This planet also does not have any satellites.
It rotates in the opposite direction from the direction of rotation of other planets – from east to west, and the distance from the Sun is estimated to be 108.2 million Km.

3. Earth

Earth is the only planet in the solar system where life exists.
Earth comes in third place among the planets through the distance from the Sun, which is also called the blue planet, as the surface is mostly filled with water.
It is the fifth-largest planet in our Solar System, and this planet has a satellite named Moon, which was the brightest object at night in our solar system. The shape of the earth is like a Geoid (a hypothetical solid figure whose surface corresponds to mean sea level and its imagined extension under (or over) land areas.).
Like other planets, Earth also revolves around the Sun in its own orbit, which takes 365 days (1 year) to make one revolution of the Sun and 24 hours to make one rotation on its own axis.
Earth’s polar axis diameter is 12713.6 Km, and its equatorial diameter is 127
The distance between Earth and the Sun is around 148.76 million Km, whereas the Moon is nearly 3,84,400 km away from this planet.
It takes only 8 minutes and 18 seconds for the sun ray to reach the earth.
Earth’s surface is 71% hydrosphere (water) and 29% lithosphere (land), where humans, animals, birds, and other land creatures live and the water creatures live in water.
The rotation of the earth causes day and night and the revolution around the sun causes the change of seasons because the pole in which the Earth revolves around the Sun is elliptical in size due to which the distance between the Sun and the Earth keeps on changing, and the minimum distance is called Perihelion, and the maximum distance is called Aphelion.
This planet is covered with a protective Ozone layer that protects the Earth’s atmosphere from the UV rays of the Sun.

Earth had no oxygen in the beginning. Then a volcano erupted: Story by India Today Science Desk 06/07/2025

Read in detail: When Earth evolved, it did not have the life-supporting oxygen that we breathe today. Researchers have now identified the conditions on the planet before the evolution of oxygen by using rock fossils.

"Fossils are like time capsules, preserving life's story in stone," said Richard Fortey, a British palaeontologist, geologist, and writer.

Researchers analysed stromatolites, layered rock-like formations made by Cyanobacteria (one of the oldest bacteria). They hold ancient records from two-and-a-half billion years ago.

HOW NITROGEN HELPED EARTH

The team analyzed nitrogen cycling patterns within ancient stromatolites, preserved in southern Zimbabwe.

Nitrogen, which is vital for life on Earth, must be converted into usable, bio-available, forms as it passes through the atmosphere, soil, plants, and animals in the nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen cycling patterns were chosen as they can help in finding the Earth's condition before the evolution of oxygen and the beginning of photosynthesis. This method of research is also less explored when compared to oxygen evolution and its impact.

Dr. Ashley Martin from the Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences at Northumbria University said that nitrogen and phosphorus are the two key nutrients that control productivity in the oceans over periods.

Dr. Martin added a note on the importance of ammonium for the biological process, and mentioned the presence of a high amount of nitrogen deep inside the ocean in the form of ammonium.

This ammonium reservoir would have been very beneficial for early life, providing the nitrogen source needed for biological processes to occur.

As early oceans had very little oxygen, they were influenced by volcanic activities. This in turn helped in the growth of microbes which acted as pioneers in the evolution of oxygen.

"We have long been puzzled by the unusual nitrogen isotope values in these rocks. "Our new findings suggest a strong linkage to hydrothermal nutrient recycling, meaning that early life may in part have been fuelled by volcanic activity," Dr Eva Stueken from the University of St Andrews explained.

The study published in Nature Communications highlights the role of the volcano, which had a lasting impact on the evolution of life at that time.

4. Mars

Mars is the fourth planet in the solar system according to the distance of the planets from the Sun.
Mars is the second smallest planet in the Solar System after Planet Mercury.
Mars is also called the Red Planet because its surface looks like rusted iron, and this planet’s atmosphere is very viral. This planet’s surface is dry and dusty like a desert, due to which dust storms run on this planet, sometimes it is so huge that it lasts for months.
The average distance of this planet from the Sun is 227.9 million km.
One day on Mars is approx. 24 hours as on Earth, and one year is about 687 Earth days.
It has two natural satellites, named Phobos and Deimos. The Deimos satellite is the smallest satellite in the solar system.
There is a mountain on Mars named Nix Olympia, whose height is three times more than Earth’s Mount Everest (Mt. Everest), and also a giant volcano on this planet named Olympus Mons.

5. Jupiter

Jupiter is the largest planet among other planets in the Solar System, and in terms of distance from the Sun, it comes fifth, whose distance is about 746.22 million km from the Sun.
It takes only 10 hours to complete one rotation and an estimated 11.9 Earth years (one Jovian year) to make one revolution around the Sun.
The diameter of the planet Jupiter is 1,39,820 Km, which is 11 times more than Earth’s diameter.
This planet has 79 named satellites, of which Ganymede is the largest satellite in the Solar System.
Like stars, this planet also receives energy from the sun’s rays and emits twice as much as energy. This planet has its own radio energy. Therefore this planet also attains the qualities of stars.
Hydrogen and helium gas are present in the atmosphere of this planet. The atmospheric pressure of this planet is 10 million times greater than that of the Sun.

6. Saturn

Saturn is the sixth planet in our Solar system according to the distance of the sun and is the second-largest planet in the solar system in size, whose distance from the Sun is around 1.4805 billion Km.
The diameter of Saturn is 1,16,480 Kms and is the visible planet in our Solar system.
It takes only 10.7 hours to complete one rotation and an estimated 29.5 Earth years to make one revolution around the Sun.
Saturn has about 82 satellites, out of which 53 are known satellites, and the search for the other 29 is still going on.
Satellite Titan is the largest satellite of Saturn and the second-largest satellite in the Solar System. Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere of this satellite.
This planet is also called a gas ball or galaxy in the Solar system because, in the middle of this planet, there are seven developed spectacular rings like a circle, which revolve around this planet due to gravity.
The surface of this planet is not solid like Earth or other planets but is of gasses like Hydrogen and Helium.

7. Uranus

Uranus comes in seventh place in the distance from the Sun in the Solar system, which is at a distance of 2.9491 billion Km from the Sun.
Like the rings of the planet Saturn, Uranus also has five rings, whose names are- Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Epsilon.
The diameter of the planet Uranus is 50,724 km which is the third-largest planet in diameter.
This planet takes about 17 hours to rotate in its axis (one Uranian day) and 84 Earth years (one Uranian year) to complete an orbit of the Sun.
Planet Uranus has 27 known satellites, and all satellites of this planet revolve in the opposite direction of the earth.
This planet appears blue in appearance because Methane gas is present in large quantities on this planet as the atmosphere of this planet consists of gasses like Hydrogen, Helium, Methane, and Ammonia.

8. Neptune

The Neptune planet comes eight in the distance from the Sun in the Solar System, which is 4.4747 billion Kms.
It takes around 16 hours (one Neptunian day) to complete one rotation and 165 Earth years (one Neptunian year) to complete one orbit around the sun.
It looks like giant ice, and the atmosphere is gaseous as it contains 80% Hydrogen, 19% Helium, and 1% amount of water and methane.
It has 14 satellites, of which Triton and Proteus are the main ones.

Source: https://onlymyenglish.com/planets-name-in-english/

§ Pluto is a dwarf planet[4] located in the Kuiper Belt, a region of icy bodies beyond Neptune's orbit. Discovered in 1930, Pluto was initially classified as the ninth planet in our solar system but was redefined as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union in 2006. It is characterized by its small size, irregular orbit, and diverse geological features, including mountains, valleys, and glaciers.

Ø Overview | Our Solar System – NASA Solar System Exploration

Ø Solar System Facts

👉 c. 3,000,000,000: Moon parted from Earth. Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago, approximately one-third the age of the universe, by accretion from the solar nebula.

👉 c. 1,200,000,000: The lowest form of life appeared in the sea (algæ[5]).

👉 c. 570,000,000: Cambrian Age: trilobites[6] and sponges[7] in the sea.

👉 c. 500,000,000: Ordovician Age, so-named by Lap worth (1879): considerable changes in positions of oceans; sea snails found; the climate was generally hot.

👉 c. 440,000,000: Silurian Age: vertebrate animals developed; large sea scorpions; first land plants (leafless) appeared.

👉 c. 395,000,000: Devonian Age: active volcanoes formed mountains; osteichthyes[8], bony fishes existed; leafy land plants and trees developed; wingless creatures left the sea and came ashore; period of old red sandstone.

👉 c. 340,000,000: Carboniferous Age: giant trees yielding our coal; development of amphibian reptiles; legs first appeared.

c. 225,000,000:

First evolution of the dinosaurs

c. 65,000,000:

Disappearance of dinosaurs

👉 275,000,000: Permian Age: rapid development of land life gradually dominated life in the sea, but still mainly reptilian.

👉 c. 225,000,000: Triassic Age: development of ichthyosaurus and crustacean ancestors; first evolution of the dinosaurs, two distinct orders (Saurischia and Ornithischia); originally these creatures were bipedal, but later often became quadrupedal. Winged insects and small mammals were present; palm ferns were also visible.

👉 c. 195,000,000: Jurassic Age[9]: a period of limestone formation; great increase in size of dinosaurs---principal age of the great reptiles; first bird, archaeopteryx having teeth and reptilian characteristics; ammonites in the sea.

👉 c. 140,000,000: Australia severed from land-mass Asia: cause of continued existence of primitive animal life on the continent.

Ø What Is A Continent?

A. According to the Cambridge dictionary, a continent is defined as “one of the seven large land masses on the earth's surface, surrounded, or mainly surrounded, by sea, and usually consisting of various countries”.

👉 c. 136,000,000: Cretaceous Age: chalk foundations laid; great areas of swamp bordered the seas; terrible and fantastic lizards developed, including pterodactyls; earliest beginnings of warm-blooded mammals.

👉 c. 65,000,000: Eocene Age: the disappearance of dinosaurs and marine reptiles; rapid development of mammals; early on, dinotherium, mastodon and saber-toothed tiger.

Q. When did man first find out about dinosaurs?

A. No human being has ever met a dinosaur alive. Dinosaurs were animals that inhabited most parts of the world, but they died everywhere about 6,500,000 years ago. Dinosaurs were extinct when humans came into the world.
Dinosaurs are known to us because of their remains. These are bones, found in skeletons or separately; footprints in the rock; skin-prints, also in the rock; and eggs.

There is some doubt as to when the first recognizable dinosaur bones were discovered. Footprints have been known for many years. A dinosaur skeleton may have been seen at Haddonfield, New Jersey, toward the end of the 1770s.

The first bones that are still available for examination and identification are some that were discovered in England. One set was found in 1822 and is now in the British Museum of Natural History in London.

Another set of dinosaur bones found about the same time was the basis for the first scientific description of any dinosaur. This was done in 1824 by a professor at Oxford University.

So it appears that human knowledge of dinosaurs is quite recent.

Dinosaur specimens have been found in great numbers in the United States, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, India, Africa, Australia, Mongolia, China, France, Germany, Portugal and the Soviet Union (which no longer exists in the 20th century). This indicates that dinosaurs really lived all over the world. - 16/11/2022

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👉 c. 38,000,000: Oligocene Age: extension of land masses; monkeys and apes existed.

Q. What is the difference between monkeys and apes?

By Alison Eldridge

Monkeys and apes are both primates, which mean they’re both parts of the human family tree. As distinguished relatives, we should probably be able to tell them apart. But when you look at a gibbon or a marmoset, how do you know which is a monkey and which is an ape?

The quickest way to tell the difference between a monkey and an ape is by the presence or absence of a tail. Almost all monkeys have tails; apes do not. Their bodies are different in other ways too: monkeys are generally smaller and narrow-chested, while apes are larger and have broad chests and shoulder joints that allow them to swing through trees (while some monkeys also have this ability, most of them are built for running across branches rather than swinging). Although you can’t recognize this difference on sight, apes have an appendix and monkeys do not. Apes are generally more intelligent than monkeys, and most species of apes exhibit some use of tools. While both monkeys and apes can use sounds and gestures to communicate, apes have demonstrated higher ability with language, and some individual apes have been trained to learn human sign languages.

However, perhaps the best way to remember, like with so many things, is rote memorization. There are only a handful of ape species, while there are hundreds of species of monkeys. If the primate you’re trying to place is not a human, gibbon, chimpanzee, bonobo, orangutan, or gorilla (or a lemur, loris, or tarsier), then it’s a monkey.

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The major source of information:
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF DATES AND EVENTS

Edited by L. C. Pascoe

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The compiler of this documentation, Rabi Roy, is grateful to his friend Late Swapan Chakraborty, a footpath bookseller in Kolkata, India, and a thinker as well, for his contribution to this part of the book.

[1]Pre-history means literally “before history”, from the Latin word for “before,” præ, and Greek ιστορία.

[2] The Neolithic Revolution, also known as the Agricultural Revolution, refers to the significant transition in human history from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities. This period marked the development of farming, the domestication of animals, and the establishment of permanent settlements, which allowed for larger populations and the rise of early civilizations. It is considered a pivotal moment in human history, occurring around 12,000 years ago.

[3] The Solar System: The collection of eight planets and their moons in orbit round the sun, together with smaller bodies in the form of asteroids, meteoroids, and comets. The major planets of the solar system are (in order of distance from the sun) Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Pluto, which is very much known as ninth planet, is a dwarf planet.

[4] A round mass of metal and rock or gas, moving around the Sun or another star, that is not large enough to be considered a planet. Dwarf planets in the solar system include Ceres, Pluto, and Eris.- Cambridge Dictionary
[5] algae (plural noun of alga), a simple, non-flowering, and typically aquatic plant-like organism of a large group that includes the seaweeds and many single-celled forms. Algae contain chlorophyll but lack true stems, roots, leaves, and vascular tissue. Origin: mid 16th century: from Latin, ‘seaweed’.

[6] Trilobites are extinct fossil arthropods that first appeared around 521 million years ago during the Cambrian Period. They are easily recognized by their distinctive three-lobed, three-segmented form. Trilobites were exclusively marine animals and are known from more than 10,000 fossil species. They were arthropods, divided into three parts from head to tail and from side to side. Trilobites were abundant during the Cambrian and Ordovician periods but eventually went extinct. -Britannica

[7] Sponges are primitive multicellular aquatic animals that constitute the phylum Porifera. They are permanently affixed (sessile), mostly marine, solitary or colonial invertebrates. Sponges have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them. They consist of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells. The mesohyl contains embedded amoeboid cells that secrete tiny needles called spicules or protein fibers that help give the sponge its structural strength. -Britannica

[8] Osteichthyes refers to a class of vertebrates known as bony fish, characterized by an endoskeleton primarily composed of bone tissue. This class includes over 30,000 species, making it the largest class of vertebrates. Key features of Osteichthyes include a skeletal endoskeleton, gill covers (operculum), and, in most cases, paired fins.

[9] The Jurassic Age, spanning from approximately 201.3 million to 145 million years ago, was a significant period in Earth's history marked by the dominance of dinosaurs and major geological changes. The Jurassic Period is part of the Mesozoic Era and is divided into three epochs: Early Jurassic (201.3 to 174.1 million years ago), Middle Jurassic (174.1 to 163.5 million years ago), and Late Jurassic (163.5 to 145 million years ago). -Britannica

Historical Chronicles- A blog run by Rabi Roy

CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY

1:1 CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY: A Book of Brief Historical Accounts of World Events ll Prehistory