Chapter 1 Page 1 👦 GLIMPSES OF WORLD HISTORY ।। A Book of Brief Historical Accounts ।। Pre-history Events ।। Compiled & Edited by Rabi Roy

                             This work is dedicated to:

slaves, serfs, peasantry, craftsmen, workers 

and many others of toiling masses of different identities, 

discoverers and inventors 

whose names are never seen 

in the pages of history written so long, 

but each and every civilization is based on 

whose blood, sweat and labor 

and who are, in fact, the real engineers 

of all civilisations.

PREHISTORY

[Pre-history means literally “before history”, from the Latin word for “before,” præ, and Greek ιστορία.

c.  6,000,000,000:The estimated age of the Solar System (variously estimated as 4,700,000,000 to 6,500,000,000)

Overview | Our Solar System – NASA Solar System Exploration

Solar System Facts

c.  3,000,000,000: Moon parted from Earth. Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago, approximately one-third the age of the universe, by accretion from the solar nebula. 

c.  1,200,000,000: The lowest form of life appeared in the sea (algæ).

c.  570,000,000: Cambrian Age: trilobites and sponges in the sea.

c.  500,000,000: Ordovician Age, so-named by Lapworth (1879): considerable changes in positions of oceans; sea snails found; the climate was generally hot. 

c.  440,000,000: Silurian Age: vertebrate animals developed; large sea scorpions; first land plants (leafless) appeared.

c.  395,000,000: Devonian Age: active volcanoes formed mountains; osteichthyes[1], bony fishes existed; leafy land plants and trees developed; wingless creatures left the sea and came ashore; period of old red sandstone.

c.  340,000,000: Carboniferous Age: giant trees yielding our coal; development of amphibian reptiles; legs first appeared.

c.  275,000,000: Permian Age: rapid development of land life gradually dominating life in the sea but still mainly reptilian.

c.  225,000,000: Triassic Age: development of ichthyosaurus and crustacean ancestors; first evolution of the dinosaurs, two distinct orders (Saurischia and Ornithischia); originally these creatures were bipedal, but later often became quadrupedal. Winged insects and small mammals were in evidence; palm ferns appeared.

c.  195,000,000: Jurassic Age: a period of limestone formation; great increase in size of dinosaurs---principal age of the great reptiles; first bird, archaeopteryx having teeth and reptilian characteristics; ammonites in the sea.

c.  140,000,000: Australia severed from land-mass Asia: cause of continued existence of primitive animal life on the continent.

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What Is A Continent?

c.  136,000,000: Cretaceous Age: chalk foundations laid; great areas of swamp bordered the seas; terrible and fantastic lizards developed, including pterodactyls; earliest beginnings of warm-blooded mammals.

c.  65,000,000: Eocene Age: the disappearance of dinosaurs and marine reptiles; rapid development of mammals; early on, dinotherium, mastodon and saber-toothed tiger.

c. 225,000,000 : First evolution  of the dinosaurs  c. 65,000,000 : Disappearance of dinosaurs

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Q. When does man first find out about dinosaurs?

A. No human being has ever met a dinosaur alive. Dinosaurs were animals that inhabited most parts of the world, but they died everywhere about 6,500,000 years ago. Dinosaurs were extinct when humans came into the world.

Dinosaurs are known to us because of their remains. These are bones, found in skeletons or separately; footprints in the rock; skin-prints, also in the rock; and eggs.

There is some doubt as to when the first recognizable dinosaur bones were discovered. Footprints have been known for many years. A dinosaur skeleton may have been seen at Haddonfield, New Jersey, toward the end of the 1770s. 

The first bones that are still available for examination and identification are some that were discovered in England. One set was found in 1822 and is now in the British Museum of Natural History in London. 

Another set of dinosaur bones found about the same time was the basis for the first scientific description of any dinosaur. This was done in 1824 by a professor at Oxford University.

So it appears that human knowledge of dinosaurs is quite recent. 

Dinosaur specimens have been found in great numbers in the United States, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, India, Africa, Australia, Mongolia, China, France, Germany, Portugal and the Soviet Union (which no longer exists in the 20th century). This indicates that dinosaurs really lived all over the world. - 16/11/2022

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c.  38,000,000: Oligocene Age: extension of land masses; monkeys and apes existed.

What’s the Difference Between Monkeys and Apes?

By Alison Eldridge

© Uryadnikov Sergey/Fotolia

Monkeys and apes are both primates, which means they’re both parts of the human family tree. As distinguished relatives, we should probably be able to tell them apart. But when you look at a gibbon or a marmoset, how do you know which is a monkey and which is an ape?

The quickest way to tell the difference between a monkey and an ape is by the presence or absence of a tail. Almost all monkeys have tails; apes do not. Their bodies are different in other ways too: monkeys are generally smaller and narrow-chested, while apes are larger and have broad chests and shoulder joints that allow them to swing through trees (while some monkeys also have this ability, most of them are built for running across branches rather than swinging). Although you can’t recognize this difference on sight, apes have an appendix and monkeys do not. Apes are generally more intelligent than monkeys, and most species of apes exhibit some use of tools. While both monkeys and apes can use sounds and gestures to communicate, apes have demonstrated higher ability with language, and some individual apes have been trained to learn human sign languages.

However, perhaps the best way to remember, like with so many things, is rote memorization. There are only a handful of ape species, while there are hundreds of species of monkeys. If the primate you’re trying to place is not a human, gibbon, chimpanzee, bonobo, orangutan, or gorilla (or a lemur, loris, or tarsier), then it’s a monkey.

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c.  26,000,000: Miocene Age: the appearance of primitive anthropoid ape (proconsul); many forms of waterfowl; great sharks in the sea.

The estimated age of the Himalayas.

How old are the Himalayas?

c.  7,000,000: Pliocene Age: present forms of continent developed; anthropoid apes flourished.

c.  2,000,000: Pleistocene Age: a period of recurrent ice ages which had a profound effect on planet life; Australopithecus and Homohabilis, which may have developed into man, existed; colitis of this period may or may not be of artificial construction; insects probably existed.  

c.  500,000: Man-like creatures (Pithecanthropus) used primitive stone implements; fire came into use; the emergence of the Palaeolithic Age.

***

The major source of information: ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF DATES AND EVENTS

Edited by L. C. Pascoe

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Compiler Rabi Roy is grateful to his friend Swapan Chakraborty, a footpath book-seller of Kolkata, India as well as a thinker, for this part of the book.

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[1] Osteichthyes, popularly referred to as the bony fish, is a diverse taxonomic group of fish that have skeletons primarily composed of bone tissue. They can be contrasted with the Chondrichthyes, which have skeletons primarily composed of cartilage. The vast majority of fish are members of Osteichthyes, which is an extremely diverse and abundant group consisting of 45 orders, over 435 families, and 28,000 species. It is the largest class of vertebrates in existence today. The group Osteichthyes is divided into ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii) and lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii). The oldest known fossils of bony fish are about 425 million years old, which are also transitional fossils, showing a tooth pattern that is in between the tooth rows of sharks and bony fishes. Osteichthyes can be compared to Euteleostomi. In paleontology the terms are synonymous. In ichthyology, the difference is that Euteleostomi presents a cladistic view which includes the terrestrial tetrapods that evolved from lobe-finned fish. Until recently, the view of most ichthyologists has been that Osteichthyes were paraphyletic and included only fishes. However, since 2013 widely cited ichthyology papers have been published with phylogenetic trees that treat the Osteichthyes as a clade including tetrapods...wiki

It is an event today, 

the same will be news tomorrow 

and again, the same will be the history the day after tomorrow.

-Rabi Roy

Next Chapter

Historical Events: Yearwise

500,000: The Peking Man Site, excavations in the early revealed evidence of human habitation from 500,000 to perhaps 680,000 years ago. The cave was excavated from 1927-37 yielding 200 human fossils (from 40 individuals) Homo erectus, more than 10,000 pieces of stoneware, several cinder layers indicating fire use in early man, as well as animal fossils from 200 separate species.

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Chapter 2 Page 2

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SLAVERY: The arrival of Africans in the New World ।। A PART OF THE HISTORY OF GLOBAL SLAVERY

Rabi Roy has compiled an exhaustive document on Black Slavery

When the missionaries came to Africa they had the Bible and we had the land. They said 'Let us pray. ' We closed our eyes. When we opened them we had the Bible and they had the land. -Desmond Tutu

TIMELINE OF SLAVERY IN THE AMERICAN CONTINENTS

(Information about Black enslavement is only included here.)

1492-1865

1492: Spain colonizes 
the island of Hispaniola 
after the arrival of 
Christopher Columbus. 
Two hundred years later
Spain cedes the western
half (Haiti) to France.
Plantations worked by 
slaves of African 
origin produce sugar, 
rum and coffee 
that enrich France.

1501: African Slaves in the New World: Spanish settlers bring slaves from Africa to Santo Domingo (now the capital of the Dominican Republic).

• 1502: Juan de Córdoba of Seville becomes the first merchant who has been identified to send an African slave to the New World. Córdoba, like other merchants, is permitted by the Spanish authorities to send only one slave. Others send two or three.

• 22 January 1510: the start of the systematic transportation of African slaves to the New World: King Ferdinand of Spain authorizes a shipment of 50 African slaves to be sent to Santo Domingo.

• 1516: the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, authorizes slave-raiding expeditions to Central America. One group of slaves aboard a Spanish caravel rebelled and killed the Spanish crew before sailing home - the first successful slave rebellion recorded in the New World.

• 1516: in his book Utopia, Sir Thomas More argues that his ideal society would have slaves but they would not be 'non-combatant prisoners-of-war, slaves by birth, or purchases from foreign slave markets.' Rather, they would be local convicts or 'condemned criminals from other countries, who are acquired in large numbers, sometimes for a small payment, but usually for nothing.' (Trans. Paul Turner, Penguin, 1965)

• 18 August 1518: in a significant escalation of the slave trade, Charles V grants his Flemish courtier Lorenzo de Gorrevod permission to import 4000 African slaves into New Spain. From this point onwards thousands of slaves are sent to the New World each year.

• 1522: Slave Revolt: A major slave rebellion breaks out on the island of Hispaniola, which now comprises Haiti and the Dominican Republic. This is the first significant uprising of African slaves. After this, slave resistance becomes widespread and uprisings common.

• 1524: 300 African slaves were taken to Cuba to work in the gold mines.

• 1526: As far as is known Hieronymous Seiler and Heinrich Ehinger of Konstanz become the first Germans to have become involved in the slave trade.

• 1527: Earliest records of sugar production in Jamaica, later a major sugar-producing region of the British Empire. Sugar production is rapidly expanding throughout the Caribbean region at this time - with the mills almost exclusively worked by African slaves.

• November 1528: a slave called Esteban (or Estevanico) becomes the first African slave to step foot in what is now the United States of America. He was one of only four survivors of Pánfilo de Narváez's failed expedition to Florida. He and the other three took eight years to walk to the Spanish colony in Mexico. After their return in 1536, the group's leader, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, published an account of their journey through modern Texas and Mexico (1542).

• 1530: Juan de la Barrera, a Seville merchant, begins transporting slaves directly from Africa to the New World (before this, slaves had normally passed through Europe first). His lead is quickly followed by other slave traders.

• 30 May 1539: Hernando de Soto, following reports from Cabeza de Vaca, lands on the coast of Florida. Of about 1200 men in his expedition, around 50 were African slaves. After exploring modern Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina, the expedition ended in disaster.

• 1546: Jacques Francis, an enslaved African salvage diver, probably originally from Mauretania, arrives in Portsmouth as part of a team hired to salvage guns from the wreck of the stricken Mary Rose.

• February 1548: Jacques Francis became the first known African to give evidence in an English court of law when his Venetian master, Peter Paulo Corsi, is accused of theft by a consortium of Italian merchants based in Southampton. Francis gave evidence in Portuguese through a translator.

• 1555: The Portuguese sailor Fernão de Oliveira, in Arte de Guerra no mar (The Art of War at Sea), denounces the slave trade as an 'evil trade'. The book anticipates many of the arguments made by abolitionists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

• July 1555: a small group of Africans from Shama (modern Ghana) described as slaves are brought to London by John Lok, a London merchant hoping to break into the African trade.

• 1556: The Italian city of Genoa tries to prevent trading in slaves - not for any humanitarian reasons - but only in an attempt to reduce the number of Africans in the city.

• 1556: Domingo de Soto, in De justicia et de jure libri X (Ten Books on Justice and Law), argues that it is wrong to keep in slavery any person who was born free.

• 1562: Britain Joins Slave Trade: John Hawkins of Plymouth, the first Briton to take part in the slave trade, makes a huge profit hauling human cargo from Africa to Hispaniola. Hawkins was about to have obtained African slaves - approximately 300 of them in Sierra Leone - for sale in the West Indies. He traded the slaves illegally with Spanish colonies, but the trip was profitable and others followed. These contributed to increasing tensions between England and Spain.

• 1569: a Sevillian Dominican, Tomás de Mercado, publishes Tratos y contratos de mercaderes (Practices and Contracts of Merchants), which attacks the way the slave trade is conducted.

• 1571: The Parlement of Bordeaux sets all slaves - "blacks and moors" - in the town free, declaring slavery illegal in France.

• 1581: Slaves in Florida: Spanish residents in St. Augustine, the first permanent settlement in Florida, imported African slaves.

1612: The first commercial tobacco crop is raised in Jamestown, Virginia.

• 1619: Twenty slaves in Virginia: Africans brought to Jamestown are the first slaves imported into Britain’s North American colonies. Like indentured servants, they were probably freed after a fixed period of service.

• 1626:The Dutch West India Company imports 11 black male slaves into the New Netherlands.

• 1636: Colonial North America's slave trade begins when the first American slave carrier, Desire, is built and launched in Massachusetts.

• 1640: John Punch, a runaway black servant, is sentenced to servitude for life. His two white companions are given extended terms of servitude. Punch is the first documented slave for life.

• 1640: New Netherlands law forbids residents from harboring or feeding runaway slaves.

• 1641: The D'Angelo marriage is the first recorded marriage between blacks in New Amsterdam.

• 1641: Massachusetts is the first colony to legalize slavery.

• 1643: The New England Confederation of Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven adopts a fugitive slave law.*

• 1650: Connecticut legalizes slavery.

• 1652: Rhode Island passes laws restricting slavery and forbidding enslavement for more than 10 years.

• 1652: Massachusetts requires all black and Indian servants to receive military training.

• 1654: A Virginia court grants blacks the right to hold slaves.

• 1657: Virginia passes a fugitive slave law.*

• 1660: Charles II, King of England, orders the Council of Foreign Plantations to devise strategies for converting slaves and servants to Christianity.

• 1662: Hereditary Slavery: Virginia law decrees that children of black mothers “shall be bond or free according to the condition of the mother.”

• 1662: Massachusetts reverses a ruling dating back to 1652, which allowed blacks to train in arms. New York, Connecticut, and New Hampshire pass similar laws restricting the bearing of arms.

• 1663: In Gloucester County, Virginia the first documented slave rebellion in the colonies takes place.

• 1663: Maryland legalizes slavery.

• 1663: Charles II, King of England, gives the Carolinas to proprietors. Until the 1680s, most settlers in the region are small landowners from Barbados.

• 1664: New York and New Jersey legalize slavery.

• 1664: Maryland is the first colony to take legal action against marriages between white women and black men.

• 1664:The State of Maryland mandates lifelong servitude for all black slaves. New York, New Jersey, the Carolinas, and Virginia all pass similar laws.

• 1666: Maryland passes a fugitive slave law.*

• 1667: Virginia declares that Christian baptism will not alter a person's status as a slave.

• 1668: New Jersey passes a fugitive slave law.*

• 1670: The State of Virginia prohibits free blacks and Indians from keeping Christian (i.e. white) servants.

• 1674: New York declares that blacks who convert to Christianity after their enslavement will not be freed.

• 1676: In Virginia, black slaves and black and white indentured servants band together to participate in Bacon's Rebellion.

• 1680: The State of Virginia forbids blacks and slaves from bearing arms, prohibits blacks from congregating in large numbers, and mandates harsh punishment for slaves who assault Christians or attempt escape.

• 1682: Virginia declares that all imported black servants are slaves for life.

• 1684: New York makes it illegal for slaves to sell goods.

• 1688: The Pennsylvania Quakers pass the first formal antislavery resolution.

• 1691: Virginia passes the first anti-miscegenation law, forbidding marriages between whites and blacks or whites and Native Americans.

• 1691: Virginia prohibits the manumission of slaves within its borders. Manumitted slaves are forced to leave the colony.

• 1691: South Carolina passes the first comprehensive slave codes. 1694: Rice cultivation is introduced into Carolina. Slave importation increases dramatically.

• 1696: The Royal African Trade Company loses its monopoly and New England colonists enter the slave trade.

• 1700: Pennsylvania legalizes slavery.

• 1702: New York passes An Act for Regulating Slaves. Among the prohibitions of this act are meetings of more than three slaves, trading by slaves, and testimony by slaves in court.

• 1703: Massachusetts requires those masters who liberate slaves to provide a bond of 50 pounds or more in the event that the freedman becomes a public charge.

• 1703: Connecticut assigns the punishment of whipping to any slaves who disturb the peace or assault whites.

• 1703: Rhode Island makes it illegal for blacks and Indians to walk at night without passes.

• 1705: Slaves as Property Describing slaves as real estate, Virginia lawmakers allow owners to bequeath their slaves. The same law allowed masters to “kill and destroy” runaways.

• 1705: The Virginia Slave Code codifies slave status, declaring all non-Christian servants entering the colony to be slaves. It defines all slaves as real estate, acquits masters who kill slaves as punishment forbids slaves and frees colored people from physically assaulting white persons, and denies slaves the right to bear arms or move abroad without written permission.

• 1705: New York declares that punishment by execution will be applied to certain runaway slaves.

• 1705: Massachusetts makes marriage and sexual relations between blacks and whites illegal.

• 1706: New York declares blacks, Indians, and slaves who kill white people to be subject to the death penalty.

• 1706: Connecticut requires that Indians, mulattos, and black servants gain permission from their masters to engage in trade.

• 1708: The Southern colonies require militia captains to enlist and train one slave for every white soldier.

• 1708: Rhode Island requires that slaves be accompanied by their masters when visiting the homes of free persons.

• 1708: Blacks outnumber whites in South Carolina.

• 1710; New York forbids blacks, Indians, and mulattos from walking at night without lighted lanterns.

• 1711: Pennsylvania prohibits the importation of blacks and Indians.

• 1711: Rhode Island prohibits the clandestine importation of black and Indian slaves.

• 1712: Pennsylvania prohibits the importation of slaves.

• 1712: Slave Revolt: New York Slaves in New York City kill whites during an uprising, later squelched by the militia. Nineteen rebels are executed.

• 1712: New York declares it illegal for blacks, Indians, and slaves to murder other blacks, Indians, and slaves.

• 1712: New York forbids freed blacks, Indians, and mulatto slaves from owning real estate and holding property.

• 1712: In Charleston, South Carolina slaves are forbidden from hiring themselves out.

• 1715: Rhode Island legalizes slavery.

• 1715: Maryland declares all slaves entering the province and their descendants to be slaves for life.

• 1717: New York enacts a fugitive slave law.*

• 1723: Virginia abolishes manumissions (?).

• 1724: French Louisiana prohibits slaves from marrying without the permission of their owners.

• 1730-50: The number of male and female slaves imported to the North American British colonies balances out for the first time.

• 1731: The Spanish reverse a 1730 decision and declare that slaves fleeing to Florida from Carolina will not be sold or returned.

• 1732: Slaves aboard the ship of New Hampshire Captain John Major kill both captain and crew, seizing the vessel and its cargo.

• 1733P: Quaker Elihu Coleman's A Testimony against That Anti-Christian Practice of MAKING SLAVES OF MEN is published.

• 1735: Under English law, Georgia prohibits the importation and use of black slaves.

• 1735: Georgia petitions Britain for the legalization of slavery.

• 1735: Louis XV, King of France, declares that when an enslaved woman gives birth to the child of a free man, neither mother nor child can be sold. Further, after a certain time, the mother and child will be freed.

• 1738: Georgia's trustees permit the importation of black slaves.

• 1738: Spanish Florida promises freedom and land to runaway slaves.

• 1739: Slaves in Stono, South Carolina rebel, sacking and burning an armory and killing whites. Some 75 slaves in South Carolina steal weapons and fled toward freedom in Florida (then under Spanish rule). Crushed by the South Carolina militia, the revolt results in the deaths of 40 blacks and 20 white. The colonial militia puts an end to the rebellion before slaves are able to reach freedom in Florida.

• 1740: South Carolina passes the comprehensive Negro Act, making it illegal for slaves to move abroad, assemble in groups, raise food, earn money, and learn to read English. Owners are permitted to kill rebellious slaves if necessary.

• 1740: Georgia and Carolina attempt to invade Florida in retaliation for the territory's policy toward runaways.

• 1749: Georgia repeals its prohibition and permits the importation of black slaves.

• 1751: George II repeals the 1705 act, making slaves real estate in Virginia.

• 1758: Pennsylvania Quakers forbid their members from owning slaves or participating in the slave trade.

• 1760: New Jersey prohibits the enlistment of slaves in the militia without their master's permission.

• 1767: The Virginia House of Burgess boycotts the British slave trade in protest of the Townsend Acts. Georgia and the Carolinas follow suit.

• 1770: Escaped slave, Crispus Attucks, is killed by British forces in Boston, Massachusetts. He is one of the first colonists to die in the war for independence.

• 1772: James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw writes the first autobiographical slave narrative.

Phillis Wheatley

• 1774: The First Continental Congress bans trade with Britain and vows to discontinue the slave trade after the 1st of December.

• 1774: Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Georgia prohibit the importation of slaves.

• 1774: Virginia takes action against slave importation.

• 1775: The slave population in the colonies is nearly 500,000. In Virginia, the ratio of free colonists to slaves is nearly 1:1. In South Carolina, it is approximately 1:2.

• 1775: Georgia takes action against slave importation.

• 1775: Abolitionist Society: Anthony Benezet of Philadelphia founds the world’s first abolitionist society. Benjamin Franklin becomes its president in 1787.

***

• 1775: In April, the first battles of the Revolutionary war are waged between the British and Colonial armies at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts. Black Minutemen participate in the fighting.

• 1775: In July, George Washington announces a ban on the enlistment of free blacks and slaves in the colonial army. By the end of the year, they reversed the ban, ordering the Continental Army to accept the service of free blacks.

• 1775: In November, Virginia Governor John Murray, Lord Dunmore, issues a proclamation announcing that any slave fighting on the side of the British will be liberated.

• 1776: In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, members of the Continental Congress sign the Declaration of Independence.

• 1776: In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Society of Friends, also known as the Quakers, forbids its members from holding slaves.

• 1776: Delaware prohibits the importation of African slaves.

• 1777: Abolition of Slavery: Vermont is the first of the thirteen colonies to abolish slavery and enfranchise all adult males.

• 1777: New York enfranchises all free propertied men regardless of color or prior servitude.

• 1778: Rhode Island forbids the removal of slaves from the state.

• 1778: Virginia prohibits the importation of slaves.

• 1780: Delaware makes it illegal to enslave imported Africans.

• 1780: Pennsylvania begins gradual emancipation.

• 1780: A freedom clause in the Massachusetts constitution is interpreted as an abolishment of slavery. Massachusetts enfranchises all men regardless of race.

• 1783: American Revolution Ends, and Britain and the infant United States sign the Peace of Paris treaty.

• 1784: Abolition Effort Congress narrowly defeats Thomas Jefferson’s proposal to ban slavery in new territories after 1800.

• 1790: First United States Census: Nearly 700,000 slaves live and toil in a nation of 3.9 million people.

• 1793: Fugitive Slave Act*: The United States outlaws any efforts to impede the capture of runaway slaves.

• 1794: Cotton Gin Eli Whitney patents his device for pulling seeds from cotton. The invention turns cotton into the cash crop of the American South—and creates a huge demand for slave labor.

***

• 1801: Slave Revolt: Former slave Toussaint Louverture leads a successful revolt and abolishes slavery in Haiti.

• 1804: Haiti becomes independent under former slave Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who is assassinated in 1806.

• 1808: The United States Bans Slave Trade Importing African slaves is outlawed, but smuggling continues.

• 1820: Missouri Compromise: Missouri is admitted to the Union as a slave state, Maine as a free state. Slavery is forbidden in any subsequent territories north of latitude.

• 1822: Slave Revolt: South Carolina Freed slaves. Denmark Vesey attempts a rebellion in Charleston. Thirty-five participants in the ill-fated uprising are hanged.

• 1831: Slave Revolt: Virginia Slave preacher Nat Turner leads a two-day uprising against whites, killing about 60. Militiamen crush the revolt and then spend two months searching for Turner, who is eventually caught and hanged. Enraged Southerners impose harsher restrictions on their slaves.

• 1835: Censorship of Southern states expels abolitionists and forbids the mailing of antislavery propaganda.

• 1847: Frederick Douglass’s Newspaper: Escaped slave Frederick Douglass** begins publishing the North Star in Rochester, New York.

• 1849: Harriet Tubman Escapes. After fleeing slavery, Tubman returns south at least 15 times to help rescue several hundred others.

• 1850: Compromise of 185: In exchange for California’s entering the Union as a free state, northern congressmen accept a harsher Fugitive Slave Act*.

• 1852: Uncle Tom’s Cabin*** Published: Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel about the horrors of slavery sells 300,000 copies within a year of publication.

• 1854: Kansas-Nebraska Act: Setting aside the Missouri Compromise of 1820, Congress allows these two new territories to choose whether to allow slavery. Violent clashes erupt.

• 1857: Dred Scott Decision: The United States Supreme Court decides, that blacks can never be citizens and that Congress has no authority to outlaw slavery in any territory.

• 1860: Abraham Lincoln of Illinois becomes the first Republican to win the United States Presidency.
• 1863: Emancipation Proclamation*****: President Abraham Lincoln decrees that all slaves in Rebel territory are free on January 1, 1863.
• 1865: Slavery Abolished: The 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution outlaws slavery.

• 1861-65 The United States Civil War**** Four years of brutal conflict claimed 623,000 lives.

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The Mesopotamian Venice: The Lost Floating Homes of Iraq

 

Nowadays, there is a lot of talk about living sustainably, and sometimes people go to great lengths for this purpose. It often surprises me just how complicated people choose to make this process when if you really want to live in a sustainable home and lead a sustainable lifestyle, you need not look too far — just go back to the roots. Sadly, the world right now is on the brink of a cultural amnesia. A language is dying every two weeks, urbanization is taking momentum once more and every nation’s heritage is slowly eroding away.  One needs only to learn about the Ma’dan to understand what I’m jabbering about.

The Mesopotamian Venice: The Lost Floating Homes of Iraq (zmescience.com)

TRIBENI-The Holy City| HooghlyKolkataWestBengal ||त्रिवेणी- एक पवित्र शह...

Mysteries Surrounding Tutankhamun And His Tomb!

Foreign tourists in India and their travelogue

Travellers' accounts are an important part of India's past history. 

Some of them are mentioned below. 

This is just a collection of information.

Travellers	Reign of Rulers	Contribution and Misc.
Deimachos Period: (320-273 BC) Who: Greek Ambassador	Came to India in the reign of Bindusara.	-
Megasthenes Period: (302-298 B.C.) Who: Greek ethnographer & ambassador.	Ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya.	Wrote an interesting book Indica.
Ptolemy Period: 130 A.D. Who: From Greece and Geographer.	-	Wrote “Geography of India” which gives a description of Ancient India.
Fa-Hien Period: (405-411 A.D.) Who: Chinese Buddhist Monk	Came to India in the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.	-          Visited the birthplace of Buddha, Lumbini. -          His Travelogue “Records of Buddhist Kingdoms”. -          Wrote Fo-Kyo-Ki.
Hiuen-Tsang Period: (630-645 A.D.) Who: Chinese Buddhist Monk	Visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana.	-          Came through Tashkent and Swat Valley. -          Book is “Si-Yu-Ki or the records of the western world”.
I-tsing Period: (671- 695 A.D.) Who: Chinese traveller	Visited India in connection with Buddhism.	-          His works are Biographies of Eminent Monks. -          Gives useful information about the social, religious and cultural life of the people of this country.
Al-Masudi Period: (957 A.D.) Who: Arab Traveller	-	Gives an extensive account of India in his work “Muruj-ul-Zahab”.
Al- Beruni or Abu Rehan Mahamud Period: (1024-1030 A.D.) Who: Muslim Scholar and Polymath	Came along with Mahmud Ghazni during one of his Indian raids.	-          First Muslim Scholar to study India also known as the founder of Indology. -          Wrote “ Tahqiq-i-Hind/Kitab-ul-Hind.
Marco Polo Period: (1292-1294 AD) Who: Venetian Traveller	Visited South India in 1294 A.D during the reign of Pandyan ruler of Madurai, Madverman, Kulshekhara (1272-1311)	His work “The Book of Sir Marco Polo” gives an invaluable account of the economic history of India.
Ibn Batuta Period: (1333-1347 A.D.) Who: Morrish traveller	Visited India during the reign of Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq.	His book “ Rehla” (the travelogue)
Shihabuddin al-Umari Period: (1348 A.D.) Who: Came from Damascus	-	He gives a vivid account of India in his book “ Masalik albsar fi-mamalik al-amsar”
Nicolo Conti Period: (1420-1421 A.D.) Who: Venetian traveller	Came during the rule of Devraya I of the Sangam Dynasty of the Vijayanagar empire.	Given a graphic account of the Vijayanagara capital.
Abdur Razzaq Period: (1443-1444 A.D.) Who: Persian traveller, Ambassador of Shahrukh of Timurid dynasty.	-          Came during the rule of Devraya II of the Sangam dynasty of the Vijaynagar Empire. -          Came in India at Zamorin's Calicut.	Given a brief account of this countryside, in his Matla us Saddin wa Majuma ul Baharain.
Athanasius Nikitin Period: (1470- 1474 A.D.) Who: Russian merchant	Visited South India in 1470.	-He describes the condition of the Bahmani kingdom under Muhammad III (1463-82). - His narrative “ The journey beyond 3 seas”
Duarte Barbosa Period: (1500-1516 A.D.) Who: Portuguese traveller	-	He has given a brief description of the government and the people of the Vijayanagar Empire.
Domingo Paes Period: (1520-1522 A.D.) Who: Portuguese traveller	Visited the court of Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagar Empire.	-
Fernao Nuniz Period: (1535-1537 A.D.) Who: Portuguese merchant	Came during the rule of Achyutdeva Raya of the Tuluv dynasty of Vijayanagar Empire.	Wrote a history of the empire from its earliest times to the closing years of Achyutdeva Raya’s reign.
John Hughen Von Linschotten Period: (1583 A.D.) Who: Dutch traveller	-	Given a valuable account of the social and economic life of South India.
William Hawkins Period: (1608-1611 A.D.) Who: Ambassador of James I, king of England.	Came to India during the reign of Jahangir, the great Mughal Emperor. William finch came with him.	-
Sir Thomas Roe Period: (1615-1619 A.D.) Who: Ambassador of James I, king of England.	Came to India during the reign of Jahangir, the great Mughal Emperor.	-
Edward Terry Period: (1616 A.D.) Who: Ambassador of Thomas Roe.	-	Describe Indian social (Gujarat) behaviour.
Franciso Palsaert Period: (1620-1627 A.D.) Who: Dutch traveller stayed at Agra.	-	Gave a vivid account of the flourishing trade at Surat, Ahmadabad, Broach, Cambay, Lahore, Multan etc.
Peter Mundy Period: (1630-34 A.D.) Who: Italian traveller	Came in the reign of the Mughal Emperor, Shahjahan.	Gives valuable information about the living standard of the common people in the Mughal Empire.
John Albert de Mandesto Period: (1638 A.D.) Who: German traveller	Reached Surat in 1638 A.D.	-
Jeen Baptiste Tavernier Period: (1638-1663 A.D.) Who: French traveller	Visited India 6 times in the reign of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb.	-
Nicolao Manucci Period: (1653-1708 A.D.) Who: Italian traveller	He got service at the court of Dara Shikoh.	-
Francois Bernier Period: (1656- 1717 A.D.) Who: French physician and Philosopher.	Danishamand Khan, a noble of Aurangzeb was his patron.	-
Jean de Thevenot Period: (1666 A.D.) Who: French traveller	-	Given an account of cities like Ahmadabad, Cambay, Aurangabad and Golconda.
John Fryer Period: (1672-1681 A.D.) Who: English traveller		Given a vivid account of Surat and Bombay.
Gemelli Careri Period: (1695 A.D.) Who: Italian traveller who landed at Daman.	-	His remarks on the Mughal emperor’s military organisation and administration are important.